Archives: history

By Srinidhi Murthy

Arunachal Pradesh is an Indian state that gained its statehood on 20 February, 1987. With Itanagar as its capital, Arunachal Pradesh borders Nagaland and Assam to the south and shares international borders with China in the north, Myanmar in the east, and Bhutan in the west. Read more to know about the history of Arunachal Pradesh.  

Earlier mentions  

Mentions of the region can be found in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and also in other texts such as Kalika and Bhagavad Purana. The present ruins of Bhismaknagar, in the Dibang Valley district, are mentioned as the palace of King Bhishmaka, the father of Rukmini in the Bhagavad Purana and the Mahabharata. Bhismaknagar also finds its mention in the Kalika Purana. Karbi, a tribe in Arunachal Pradesh, consider themselves the descendants of Vali and Sugriva. The main archaeological sites of present-day Arunachal Pradesh, including Bhismaknagar Fort, Roing, Gomsi Fort, East Siang, Ita Fort and Itanagar, were built during the 8th to 15th centuries. These archaeological sites were built by Chutia kings, who ruled the regions of present-day Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. During the 16th century, the Chutia dynasty began to decline, when they were defeated by the Ahom kings. The northern part of the region was under the control of Bhutan and Tibet, while the region’s other parts were ruled by Ahom kings until the British annexation in 1858.  

McMahon Line 

In 1912–13, the British government made agreements with the natives from the Himalayas of northeastern India, to establish the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA), originally known as the North-East Frontier Tracts (NEFT). N.E.F.A. was divided into three sections. The three sections came to be known as Ballipara Frontier Tract, Lakhimpur Frontier Tract and Sadiya Frontier Tract. The representatives of Tibet and Britain, met in India, in 1913-14, to define the borders of Outer Tibet concerning China. The Simla Accord treaty was negotiated by the representatives of China, Britain and Tibet and the treaty drew a boundary of 890 km, famously known as the McMahon line, between Tibet and India. The line was not accepted by China and was not followed strictly by the country, even two decades after the Simla Accord. 

Statehood 

India gained independence in 1947. The new Chinese government continued to consider the McMahon line invalid. In 1962, the resurgence of the border disagreement led to the Sino-Indian war during which China captured most of the North-Eastern Frontier Agency. However, China declared victory in the Sino-Indian War and withdrew back to the McMahon Line. In 1963, the nation returned the captured Indian prisoners during the war. In 1972, N.E.F.A was renamed Arunachal Pradesh. In 1987, the region gained its statehood and became the nation’s 24th state. The state has one of the highest diversity of mammals and birds in India, with around 750 species of birds and more than 200 species of mammals, and also harbours 5000 plants. The economy of Arunachal Pradesh is primarily dependent on agriculture and the state is also ideal for fruit orchids and horticulture. 

Present times and tourism 

Arunachal Pradesh is an ethnically diverse state as it has people from 26 major tribes such as Adi, Nyshi, Galo, Tagin, Lisu and Apatani, and 100 sub-tribes including Digaru-Mishmi Miju-Mishmi and Idu-Mishmi. The state also has a 66.95% literacy rate and ranks 24th on the Human Development Index (HDI). Known as the Land of the Rising Sun, the state is known for its green forests and pristine beauty and is filled with numerous waterfalls, lakes and monasteries. Some of the places to visit in Arunachal Pradesh are Namdapha National Park, Golden Pagoda, a Buddhist temple in Manhofai, Ziro Valley, a town in Subansiri district, Nuranang Falls in Tawang district and Mechuka, a town in Shi Yomi district.  

Notable People 

Arunachal Pradesh has produced famous mountaineers like Tapi Mra, Anshu Jamsenpa and Tine Mena and social activists like Nabam Atum and Binny Yanga, in the Republic India. Tapi Mra is the first mountaineer from Arunachal Pradesh to climb Mount Everest. Tine Mena, who was born in Echali, a remote village in Roing district, became the first woman mountaineer from Arunachal Pradesh and Northeast India, to reach the summit of Mount Everest on 9 May, 2011. Anshu Jamsenpa is the world’s first woman mountaineer to scale Mount Everest’s summit twice in a season. She reached the summit first on 12 May, 2011 and made her second summit on 21 May, 2011. In 2021, she was awarded Padma Shri, the nation’s fourth highest civilian award. Nabam Atum is a renowned social activist, who worked his entire life for strengthening the national fibre of Arunachal Pradesh and created awareness among the people regarding China’s aggression, across the border. He was awarded the Our North East (ONE) India Award by then Gujarat Chief Minister, Narendra Modi, in 2012. Binny Yanga was a social worker and a member of the National Planning Commission of India. She was also the founder of the Oju Welfare Association (OWA), an NGO, that not only organises awareness campaigns against social issues including child marriage, forced marriage and dowry but also provides education through its free educational institutions. Yanga was also honoured with Padma Shri in 2012, by the Indian Government. 

By Srinidhi Murthy

Chhattisgarh is one of the Indian states situated in the central part of the nation, with Raipur as its capital. The state is surrounded by Odisha to the east, Telangana to the south, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh to the west, and Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast and north. Read more to know some interesting facts about Chhattisgarh.

Ancient history

The region’s history can be traced back to the 3rd century. The Sitabega caves, situated on the Ramgarh hill in present-day Chhattisgarh, date back to the Mauryan period during the 3rd century. They still serve as one of the earliest examples of Indian architecture. Earlier, Chhattisgarh was known as Dakshina (Southern) Kosala. The region’s mention is found in the Indian epic, Ramayana. Kosala region was mentioned as the birthplace of Rama’s mother, Koushalya in Ramayana and Rama, along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshamana, had started their exile in the Dandakaranya region of Bastar in Chhattisgarh. Between the 6th and 12th centuries, the region was ruled by various dynasties such as the Sharabhpuria,  Kalachuri, Somavanshi and Nagavanshi. The Bastar region of present-day Chhattisgarh was invaded by Chola emperors, Rajendra Chola I and Kulothunga Chola I, in the 11th century. In the 14th Century, the region came under the rule of the Haihaiyavanshi dynasty. During the 18th century, the kingdom began to decline due to the Maratha invasion.

 Maratha and Colonial Rule

In 1758, the region was conquered by Marathas and Bimbaji Bhonsle was appointed as its ruler. There was some unrest in the region during the Maratha rule and it faced attacks from Pindaris, irregular military plunderers, in the early 19th century.  In 1818, Chhattisgarh came under British rule. Under British rule, the region comprised 14 feudatory princely kingdoms.  In 1854, Nagpur was included under the rule of the British government, and Chhattisgarh was made into a deputy commissionership, with its headquarters located at Raipur. 

Freedom Movement

Chhattisgarh has produced its fair share of heroes who sacrificed their lives for our nation’s freedom and fought bravely against British rule. Veer Narayan Singh, a landlord from Chattisgarh, headed the 1857 war of Indian independence in the region and was hanged at Jaistambh Chowk of Raipur. In the 1980s, the martyrdom of Veer Narayan Singh was resurrected and he became a symbol of Chhattisgarhi pride.  In 1859, the Koi rebellion was an important uprising among the tribal people in the region of Bastar against the oppressive British rule. In the early 20th century, prominent leaders such as Pt. Ravishankar Shukla, E. Raghvendra Rao, Sundarlal Sharma, Thakur Pyarelal Singh, Shri Madhavrao and Shri Medhawale led movements such as the Individual Satyagraha, Non-Cooperation Movement, Quit India and also encouraged the people to participate in the Indian independence movement.

Post Independence

After independence, the region was merged with Madhya Pradesh according to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, and remained a part of it for 44 years, until 1 November, 2000. Although the demand for the separate statehood of Chhattisgarh began in the 1970s, its roots go back to the early 20th century, when local leaders began to claim a distinct cultural identity for the region. In August 2000, the Indian legislature passed the Madhya Pradesh Reorganisation Bill to form the state of Chhattisgarh. The formation of Chhattisgarh was a noteworthy incident as it was done peacefully. Currently, Chhattisgarh is a resource-rich Indian state as it provides electricity, steel and coal to the rest of the nation. In 2021, the state had been ranked the cleanest state in the country for the third consecutive year, with Raipur being ranked the sixth cleanest city in the nation. It is the 9th largest Indian state and the 17th most populated state in the nation. The state also has many tourist destinations to explore, including Chitrakot Waterfalls in Bastar District, Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary in Mahasamund district as well as Mahakoshal Art Gallery,  Purani Basti (Old Colony) and Mahant Ghasidas Memorial Museum in Raipur.

Notable people 

The state has produced artists, authors, musicians and scientists, who have provided their valuable contribution to the welfare of the society. Some of the notable personalities from Chhattisgarh in India are Naik Kaushal Yadav, Punaram Nishad, Pukhraj Bafna, and Teejan Bai. Naik Kaushal Yadav was a squad commander, who was martyred in the 1999 Kargil War between India and Pakistan. He was awarded Vir Chakra, the nation’s third highest gallantry award posthumously for his valour and sacrifice. Punaram Nishad is a folk musician, known for his prowess in Pandavani, a folk music tradition of Chhattisgarh. The musician was awarded Padma Shri, India’s fourth highest civilian award in 2005 for his contribution to Indian music. Pukhraj Bafna, an Indian paediatrician, received the Padma Shri in 2011, for his contributions towards tribal child and adolescent health. Teejan Bai, a folk artist, is known for enacting tales from the Mahabharata, with musical accompaniments, in Pandavani. She was honoured with the Padma Shri in 1987, Padma Bhushan in 2003, and Padma Vibhushan in 2019 by the Indian Government for her contribution to the arts. She was also the recipient of the Fukuoka Arts and Culture Prize, one of the greatest honours bestowed upon artists in Japan. 

West Bengal is the fourth-most populous state in India and the fourteenth-largest state by area. The state borders Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Bangladesh in the east. With Kolkata as its capital, West Bengal also borders the Indian states of Jharkhand, Sikkim, Assam, Bihar and Odisha. Read more to know some interesting facts and stories about West Bengal.

Ancient History

Though the origin of the name Bengal, also known as Bangla and Bango in Bengali, is unknown, it was suggested that the Bengali word ‘Bango’ might have been derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga or Banga. According to the Indian epic Mahabharata, the region was mentioned as a part of the Vanga Kingdom. Shashanka was the first recorded independent king of Bengal, who reigned in the early 7th century. Following the Ghurid conquests led by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islam spread across the Bengal region. During the Islamic Bengal Sultanate, founded in 1352, Bengal was a major world trading nation and was often referred to as the richest country to trade with, by the Europeans. Following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb and the Governor of Bengal Shaista Khan, Mughal Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal. 

Colonial Period

Many European traders like French, Dutch, British and Portuguese reached Bengal in the late 15th century. In 1757, The British East India Company, under the leadership of Major-General Robert Clive, defeated Siraj ud-Daulah, the last Nawab of Bengal, and his French allies in the Battle of Plassey. The outcome of the battle helped the British to gain control over Bengal. In 1765, The company gained the right to collect revenue in Bengal subah (province) and the Bengal Presidency was established. In 1773, Calcutta, the headquarters of the East India Company, was named the capital of British-held territories in India. The Bengal famine of 1770, which claimed millions of lives, had occurred due to tax policies enacted by the British company. Enraged with British rule, the 1857 Indian rebellion started near Calcutta. As a result of the rebellion, the authority of ruling India was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown.

Indian Independence Movement

The revolutionaries and youth from Bengal participated actively in the freedom struggle and the region played a vital role in spreading patriotic fervour throughout the nation. Guided by eminent leaders like Chittranjan Das, Bipin Chandra Pal, Renuka Ray and A. K. Fazlul Huq, the people of Bengal were unified in the cause of liberating our nation from the British Raj. Secret Revolutionary groups such as Jugantar (New Era) and Anushilan Samiti (Body Building Society), a fitness club which was used as an underground society for the revolutionaries, were dominant in Bengal during the Independence Movement. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose played a vital role in the independence movement. He formed the Indian National Army which challenged the authority of British rule in India. During this period, the Bengal Renaissance and the Brahmo Samaj, the two socio-cultural reform movements, significantly influenced the economic and cultural identity of Bengal. The colonial-era also produced notable freedom fighters, authors, social reformers and philosophers such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Girish Chandra Ghosh, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Swami Vivekananda and many others from West Bengal.

Post-Independence and Current times

After India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned into the western and eastern parts. The western part was named West Bengal and went to the Dominion of India. The eastern part, which went to the Dominion of Pakistan as a province, was named East Bengal, and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971. After the partition and Indian independence in 1947, West Bengal initially went through many decades of economic stagnation and political unrest. Now, the economy of the state is the fourth-largest in India and also has the 28th-highest ranking among Indian states on the Human Development Index (HDI). West Bengal has two World Heritage sites, i.e. Darjeeling Himalayan Railway and Sundarbans National Park, and is ranked as the seventh-most visited tourist destination in India. In addition to the heritage sites, the state also has cities like Kolkata and Siliguri and hill stations like Darjeeling and Kalimpong, for tourists to explore.